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By the second century BCE the Chinese had developed a "vast, complex and highly centralized bureaucratic state",〔Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.〕 with a long-stable realm in the form of the Zhou Dynasty stretching back long before that.〔Origins of Statecraft in China. Herrlee Glessner Creel.〕 Chinese administrative organization, and to an extent technology like metallurgy, would be "far in advance of the rest of the world" until "nearly the end of the eighteenth century",〔Herrlee Glessner Creel. Origins of Statecraft in China (1970). p.3-4. Van der Sprenkel, "Max Weber on China," 357〕 influencing western administrative practices not later than the twelfth century and playing a significant role in the development of the modern state, including use of the examination. The later Song dynasty would be the first government to nationally issue banknotes or true paper money, and also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass. The Chinese state was derived from what may be termed as "Chinese administrative philosophy". Its primary aspects formed in the Warring States period, that being the moralist Confucianism, and a later often masked and unspoken "Realism",〔Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.〕〔http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/〕 often termed "Legalism" following its synthesis in the Han Feizi〔http://www.indiana.edu/~p374/Legalism.pdf LEGALISM AND HUANG-LAO THOUGHT. Indiana University, Early Chinese Thought R. Eno.〕 and modernly compared, if not favourably with Machiavelli.〔Zhengyuan Fu China's Legalists, the Earliest Totalitarians and Their Art of Ruling. p1〕〔http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11712-012-9269-y〕〔http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/world_civ/worldcivreader/world_civ_reader_1/hanfeitzu.html〕〔https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/chinese_legalism.html〕 Both played important roles in advocating for a unified China.〔Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.〕 ==Introduction== (詳細はhumanist.〔Hansen, Chad, "Zhuangzi", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2015/entries/zhuangzi/〕 More than any particular distinction, adherents considered their ideology to be the one that ought be adopted by the state because they considered their "way" to be higher or more universal in perspective. The defining Zhou ideation, heaven, represents represents such a unity. Pre-Han ideologies would make some comparison between each other during the turmoil of the Warring States period, but only really tried to demarcate themselves as distinct with the later arrival of Buddhism. Early Spring and Autumn reformers often related with morality, and administration with it. Warring States "Legalists" Li Si and Han Fei Zi were taught by heterodox Confucian Xunzi〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Legalism History )〕 who, rejecting the innate human goodness or morality of Mencius, emphasized the importance of education and ritual.〔Herrlee G. Creel, Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1〕 Translator Allyn Rickett writes: "all early Chinese political thinkers were basically committed to a reesteablishment of the golden age of the past as early Zhou propoganda described it."〔 In trying to advance innovative solutions, later reformers like Qin's Shang Yang would disavow the usefulness of the past. But though aiming at a new dynasty Qin still practised Zhou ritual and considered itself a rehabilitater as such.〔Early Chinese Empires, Mark Edward Lewis〕〔http://oriens-extremus.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/OE45-03.pdf Biases and Their Sources: Qin History in the Shiji, Yuri Pines (Jerusalem), pg 7. "Throughout the Chunqiu and the early Zhanguo period, Qin nobles implemented the lie ding system with the same vigor as their eastern peers. As elsewhere in the Zhou world, Qin nobles were occasionally transgressing ritual norms, “upgrading” the number of ritual vessels in the tomb, but these subtle transgressions display, if anything, mastery of the subtleties of the Zhou ritual and not 'barbarian coarseness'."〕 Inspired by the Zhou-innovated Mandate of Heaven, some, like the Confucians, would come to see the decay as one pertaining to "virtue", and advocate its practice among the disparate lords. The later Mohists would advocate a universal fraternity. Looking back to a period of long, united stability, none of the major schools, the Chinese political body itself, or the Chinese more generally, viewed the political fragmentation as a positive development. Believing that a sage or other restoration of order would result in the supremacy of their ideology (or state), neither did any really believe in disputation.〔Mark Edward Lewis, Writing and Authority in Early China〕 John Dewey described the influence of Confucianism and Daoism as merging “to create a definite contempt for politics and an aversion to government as the West understands the term.”〔http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/phil390561.pdf Published by University of Hawai'i Press. Philosophy East and West, Volume 61, Number 3, July 2011, pp. 468-491. Sor-hoon Tan. The Dao of Politics: Li (Rituals/Rites) and Laws as Pragmatic Tools of Government(Article).〕 In 1960 Thomé H. Fang said that "Three major philosophical traditions in classical antiquity - Taoism, Confucianism and Moism - joined forces contemporaneously with one another in giving expression to the pervading unity of man and nature..."〔http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-6253.1973.tb00638.x/abstract FANG, T. H. (1973), A PHILOSOPHICAL GLIMPSE OF MAN AND NATURE IN CHINESE CULTURE *. Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 1: 4. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.1973.tb00638.x〕 But a developing political methodology, coming to fruition in the Warring States period, would also ultimately win out as China's administrative background, though not official ideology, because the naturalism of Taoism and the benevolence and virtue of Confucianism lacked sufficiently active program for political reform based upon the present. Warring States period reformers, later termed Legalists, criticized reliance upon the past〔http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/world_civ/worldcivreader/world_civ_reader_1/hanfeitzu.html Han Fei-tzu (d. 233 BCE): Legalist Views on Good Government. Reading About the World, Volume 1. Paul Brians, Department of English Washington State University〕 while offering offering modern, rationalized political formulas.〔http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/hanfei.html Chinese Cultural Studies: Han Fei. A Legalist Writer:Selections from The Writings of Han Fei. The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu, (London: Arthur Probsthain, 1939), pp. 40, 45-47 repr. in Alfred J. Andrea and James H. Overfield, The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Vol 1, 2d. ed., (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 95-97〕 For them, the only "Way" was that of the present. Pre-Qin Confucianism, and Mohism with it, also advocated political autonomy for their followers, something which ran counter to any attempts to actually run an administration. Though post-Qin Confucianism was somewhat more integrated, it still often ran counter to the monarchy, public administration and military capability.〔Early Chinese Empires, Mark Edward Lewis〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Political thought in ancient China」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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